Paul Anthony Samuelson
Paul Anthony Samuelson se narodil v Gary ve státě Indiana 15. května roku 1915. Studoval na University of Chicago (1935 titul bakalář svobodných umění, 1936 titul mistr svobodných umění) a na Harvardu (1941 doktorát z filozofie). Obdržel řadu cen, medailí, stipendií (Cena Davida A. Wellse, Medaile Johna Batese Clarka, Guggenheimovo stipendium, …) a čestných doktorátů (University of Chicago, Oberlin College, Indiana University, East Anglia University). Od roku 1940 až do dnešní doby je jeho jméno spjato s Massachusetts Institute of Technology, kde byl nejprve odborným asistentem, potom mimořádným profesorem a od roku 1947 profesorem. Paul Samuelson byl ženatý, měl šest dětí. S rodinou žil v Belmontu ve státě Massachusetts.
Již jako postgraduální student na Harvardu si P. Samuelson získal mezinárodní uznání a výrazně obohatil ekonomickou teorii. Jeho první velká práce „Foundations of Economic Analysis“ (1947) je dodnes chápána jako klasická formulace matematických základů ekonomické teorie.
Po celou dobu jeho vědecké dráhy byla u P. Samuelsona patrná jednak schopnost klást relevantní otázky, týkající se ekonomické teorie a její výstavby, jednak snaha opětovně reformulovat klíčové koncepce ve světle nejnovějších poznatků. Hluboké přesvědčení o praktickém smyslu ekonomické teorie jej vždy vedlo k hledání co nejadekvátnějších odpovědí na palčivé hospodářskopolitické problémy doby. Přestože svými příspěvky zasáhl významně do mnoha oblastí ekonomie, jeho systematické úsilí o zvýšení všeobecné analytické a metodologické úrovně ekonomické vědy především její matematizací, celkovým usoustavněním a vyjasněním sehrálo zvláštní roli. Tvrdil, že ekonomové tím, že podávali ekonomické argumenty v těžkopádné próze místo v jednoduchých matematických pojmech, provozovali „mentální gymnastiku podivně zvráceného typu“ a že jsou jako „velmi dobře trénovaní atleti, kteří nikdy neběželi závod“. Přirovnával ekonomii ke „spící princezně, očekávající oživující polibek od Maynarda Keynese, ale také od matematických metod“. Nedomníval se, že matematika je všelékem a konečným cílem ekonomické analýzy, ale pod dojmem nejasností, překrývání a omylů tehdejšího ekonomické jazyka trval na tom, že matematika je podstatná pro pochopení toho, oč v ekonomii jde. Svojí první velkou prací „Foundations of Economic Analysis“, vydanou v r. 1947, ukázal, že je tento přístup životaschopný.
Samuelsonovy studie v oblasti matematické ekonomie se mj. týkaly lineárního a optimálního programování a možností jejich využití k řešení praktických problémů v mezinárodním obchodě, v dopravě a marketingu, v otázkách konkurenční strategie, při plánování obrany, při určování optimálního režimu výživy atd. Spolu s R. Dorfmanem a R. Solowem vydal na toto téma v r. 1958 knihu „Linear Programming and Economic Analysis“.
Metodologii, kterou P. Samuelson používal při řešení mnoha problémů, významně ovlivnila dobrá znalost fyziky. Na základě určitých analogií mezi fyzikou a ekonomií dospěl k závěru, že i ekonom je schopen získat lepší a úspornější popis ekonomického chování, použije-li principu maximalizace, resp. minimalizace (např. Le Chatelierův princip). Ne že by tento princip byl v ekonomii neznámý, ale P. Samuelson jej začal používat v nových souvislostech. Významně přispěl do několika oblastí. Patří k nim dynamická teorie a analýza stability. Jejím charakteristickým rysem je, že není, na rozdíl od statické analýzy, omezena na rovnovážné situace, ale naopak důraz klade na otázku, jak se ekonomický systém chová, když se nenalézá v rovnováze, a jak se ekonomika vyvíjí v čase, ve sledu vývojových fází. Samuelsonův přínos tkví především ve zpřesnění podmínek, za nichž je ekonomický systém stabilní v tom smyslu, že má tendenci se vracet sám od sebe do rovnováhy po předcházející poruše.
Další oblastí, kterou Samuelson významně obohatil, je teorie spotřeby a s ní spjatá teorie indexních čísel. P. Samuelson rovněž přispěl k rozpracování problematiky všeobecné rovnováhy zvláště ve vztahu k teorii mezinárodního obchodu, kde navázal na výzkum zahájený Heckscherem a Ohlinem, když ukázal, za jakých podmínek je výsledkem mezinárodního obchodu vyrovnání plateb faktorům (mzda, renta, úrok) mezi zeměmi zúčastněnými v mezinárodním obchodě.
P. Samuelson také obohatil oblast teorie kapitálu. Částečně ve spolupráci se Solowem dokázal, že je možné rozvíjet teorii kapitálu a mluvit tak o dobře definované ceně kapitálu i bez přijímání pojmů agregátní kapitál. Jiným přínosem pro kapitálovou teorii bylo rozpracování tzv. teorému dálnice, který definuje podmínky pro maximální růst.
Kromě výše zmíněných oblastí se P. Samuelson zabýval také ekonomií blahobytu, psal historické a metodologické studie a eseje a v neposlední řadě i komentáře k hospodářskopolitickým programům amerických vlád. Kdyby však již kvůli ničemu jinému, tak svou schopností komunikovat s laickou veřejností se P. Samuelson zapsal trvalým písmem do ekonomie jako její popularizátor a pedagog. Nebyly to jen jeho sloupky v časopise Newsweek, ale především v poválečném období nejznámější učebnice ekonomie „Economics: An Introductory Analysis“, vydaná poprvé v r. 1948, přeložená do mnoha světových jazyků a opakovaně doplňovaná a aktualizovaná. Někteří ekonomové se domnívají, že právě tato kniha je jeho opravdu největším přínosem, neboť přispěla k tomu, že ve světě vznikl společný ekonomický jazyk.
Vedle neobyčejně plodné vědecké práce pracoval Paul Samuelson jako expert a konzultant v mnoha hospodářskopolitických institucích i vládních úřadech, byl také ekonomickým poradcem prezidenta J. F. Kennedyho. Pro rok 1961 byl zvolen předsedou Americké ekonomické asociace a v roce 1965 předsedou Mezinárodní ekonomické asociace. Kromě toho působil v mnoha čestných a odborných organizacích včetně Americké akademie umění a věd, Americké filozofické společnosti, Britské akademie, společnosti Phi Beta Kappa atd.
Přínos P. A. Samuelsona pro ekonomii je tak obrovský a rozsáhlý, že řečeno slovy A. Lindbecka – je dnes prakticky nemožné dostat se do nějaké důležité oblasti ekonomické teorie, aniž by se přešlo přes mosty, které postavil právě Paul Samuelson.
Autor jedné z nejvíce vydávaných učebnic ekonomie, patřící mezi největší postavy ekonomické vědy uplynulého 20. století, zemřel 13. prosince 2009 v Belmontu, Massachusetts, ve věku 94 let.
Knihy
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Analysis of Guaranteed Wages. Washington: Bureau of Labour, 1947.
SAMUELSON, P. A., NORDHAUS, W. D. Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economics: An Introductory Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Equilibrium Points in Game Theory. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corp., 1951.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Notes on the Dynamic Approach to Saddlepoints and Extremum Points. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1951.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Readings in Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Linear Programming and Economic Analysis. Mineola: Dover Publications, 1987.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Foundations of Economic Analysis. Altheneum, 1965.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Problems of the American Economy; An Economist’s View. London: University of London, Athlone Press, 1962.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Stability and Growth in the American Economy. Stockholm: Distributors, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1963.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Programmation linéaire et gestion économique. Paris: Dunod, 1962.
SAMUELSON, P. A., ROBINSON, R. Instructor’s Manual and Answer Key to study Guide and Workbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Les Fondaments de l’Analyse Économique. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1965.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A. Samuelson. Cambridge, London: M.I.T. Press, 1966.
SAMUELSON, P. A., BURNS, A. F. Full Employment: Guideposts and Economic Stability. Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1967.
SAMUELSON, P. A. International Economic Relations. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the International Economic Association. London: McMillan, 1969.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Volkswirtschaftslehre. Eine Einführung. Köln: Bund-Verlag, 1971.
SAMUELSON, P. A. L‘ économique. Techniques modernes de l’analyse économique. Paris: A. Collin, 1967.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Samuelson Sampler. Glen Ridge, N.J.: T. Horton, 1973.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economics. Tata McGraw-Hill, 2010.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Controlling Monetary Aggregates. Proceedings of the Monetary Conference Held on Nantucket Island June 8-10 1969. Boston, Federal Reserve Bank, 1971.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Investment Portfolio Decision-making. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Trade, stability and macroeconomics; essays in honor of Lloyd A. Metzler. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Profit-sharing: A Symposium / Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft. Tübingen: Mohr, 1977.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Milton Friedman and Paul A. Samuelson discuss the economic responsibility of government. College Station, Tex.: Center for Education and Research in Free Enterprise, Texas A&M University, 1980.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economics from the Heart: A Samuelson Sampler. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983.
EPSTEIN, R. S., SAMUELSON, P. A. Investments and the Law. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Mutual Funds. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988.
SAMUELSON, P. A., WOODS, J. C. Critical Assessments. Routledge, 1989.
SAMUELSON, P. A., YOHE, G. W. Study Guide to Accompany Samuelson-Nordhaus Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1992.
SAMUELSON, P. A., NORDHAUS, W. D. Macroeconomics: A Version of Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
SAMUELSON, P. A., NORDHAUS, W. D. Microeconomics: A Version of Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
SAMUELSON, P. A., NORDHAUS, W. D. Macroeconomics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
SAMUELSON, P. A., NORDHAUS, W. D. Microeconomics. Academic Internet Publishers Incorporated, 2006
SAMUELSON, P. A. International Factor Price Equalization Once Again. Cambridge: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1949.
SAMUELSON, P. A. International Trade and Equalization of Prices Factor. Cambridge: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 19-.
Ostatní publikace
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Note on Measurement of Utility. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. IV, no. 2, February 1937, p. 155-161.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Some Aspects of the Pure Theory of Capital. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LI, May 1937, p. 469-496.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Note on the Pure Theory of Consumer’s Behaviour. Economica, vol. V, no. 17, February 1938, p. 61-71.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Welfare Economics and International Trade. The American Economic Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, June 1938, p. 261-266.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Note on the Pure Theory of Consumer’s Behaviour: An Addendum. Economica, vol. V, August 1938, p. 353-354.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Numerical Representation of Ordered Classifications and the Concept of Utility. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. VI, no. 1, October 1938, p. 65-70.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Empirical Implications of Utility Analysis. Econometrica, vol. 6, no. 4, October 1938, p. 344-356.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Rate of Interest under Ideal Conditions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LIII, no. 2, February 1939, p. 286-297.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The End of Marginal Utility. Economica, vol. VI, February 1939, p. 86-87.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Gains from International Trade. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, vol. 5, no. 2, May 1939, p. 195-205.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Interactions between the Multiplier Analysis and the Principle of Acceleration. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXI, no. 2, May 1939, p. 75-78.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Synthesis of the Principle of Acceleration and the Multiplier. The Journal of Political Economy, vol. XLVII, no. 6, December 1939, p. 786-797.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Theory of Pump-Priming Reexamined. The American Economic Review, vol. XXX, no. 3, September 1940, p. 492-506.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Concerning Say’s Law. Abstract of a paper read to Econometric Society at New Orleans, December 1940, published in Econometrica, vol. 9, no. 2, April 1941, p. 177-178.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Stability of Equilibrium: Comparative Statics and Dynamics. Econometrica, vol. 9, no. 2, April 1941, p. 97-120.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Statistical Analysis of the Consumption Function. Appendix in A. H. Hansen, Fiscal Policy and Business Cycles, New York: W. W. Norton, 1941, p. 250-260.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Conditions that the Roots of a Polynomial Be Less than Unity in Absolute Value. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, vol. XXI, no. 3, p. 360-364.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Professor Pigou’s Employment and Equilibrium. The American Economic Review, vol. XXXI, no. 3, September 1941, p. 545-552.
SAMUELSON, P. A., STOLPER, W. F. Protection and Real Wages. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. IX, no. 1, November 1941, p. 58-73.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Note on Alternative Regressions. Econometrica, vol. 10, no. 1, January 1942, p. 80-83.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Stability of Equilibrium: Linear and Nonlinear System. Econometrica, vol. 10, no. 1, January 1942, p. 1-25.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Constancy of the Marginal Utility of Income. In Lange et al., eds., Studies in Mathematical Economics and Econometrics, in Memory of Henry Schultz, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942, p. 75-91.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Fiscal Policy and Income Determination. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LVI, no. 4, August 1942, p. 575-605.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Business Cycle and Urban Development. In Guy Greer, ed., The Problem of the Cities and Towns, Conference on Urbanism, Harvard University, March 5-6 1942, p. 6-17.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Method of Determining Explicitly the Coefficients of the Characteristic Equation. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, vol. XIII, no. 4, December 1942, p. 424-429.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Dynamics, Statics, and the Stationary States. Essays in honour of Joseph Schumpeter, The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXV, no. 1, February 1943, p. 58-68.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Full Employment after the War. In S. E. Harris, ed., Postwar Economic Problems, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1943, p. 27-53.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Fitting General Gram-Charlier Series. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, vol. XIV, no. 2, June 1943, p. 179-187.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Fundamental Multiplier Identity. Econometrica, vol. II, no. 3-4, July-October 1943, p. 221-226.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Further Commentary on Welfare Economics. The American Economic Review, vol. XXXIII, no. 3, September 1943, p. 605-607.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Simple Method of Interpolation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 29, no. 11, December 1943, p. 397-401.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Efficient Computation of the Latent Vectors of a Matrix. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 29, no. 11, December 1943, p. 393-397.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Relation between Hicksian Stability and True Dynamic Stability. Econometrica, vol. 12, Nos. 3 and 4, July-October 1944, p. 256-257.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Effect of Interest Rate Increases on the Banking System. The American Economic Review, vol. XXXV, no. 1, March 1945, p. 16-27.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Turn of the Screw. American Economic Review, vol. XXXV, no. 4, September 1945, p. 674-676.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Convergent Iterative Process. Journal of Mathematics and Physics, vol. XXIV, Nos. 3-4, November 1945, p. 131-134.
Book review of Jacob L. Mosak, General Equilibrium Theory in International Trade. In The American Economic Review, vol. XXXV, no. 5, December 1945, p. 943-945.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Comparative Statics and the Logic of Economic Maximizing. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. XIV (1), no. 35, 1946-1947, p. 41-43.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A connection between the Bernoulli an Newton Iterative Processes. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 52, no. 3, March 1946, p. 239.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Computation of Characteristic Vectors. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 52, no. 3, March 1946, p. 239-240.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Generalization of the Laplace Transform for Difference Equations. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 52, no. 3, March 1946, p. 240.
SAMUELSON, P. A., HOLT, C. C. The Graphic Depiction of Elasticity of Demand. The Journal of Political Economy, vol. LIV, no. 4, August 1946, p. 354-357.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Generalized Newton Iteration. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 53, no. 3, March 1947, p. 283.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Generalization of the Laplace Transform for Any Operator. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 53, no. 3, March 1947, p. 283-284.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Some Implications of ‚Linearity‘. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. XV (2), no. 38, 1947-1948, p. 88-90.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Simple Mathematics of Income Determination. In L. A. Metzler et al., Income, Employment and Public Policy: Essays in Honor of Alvin Hansen, New York: W. W. Norton, 1948.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Dynamic Process Analysis for the American Economic Association’s A Survey of Contemporary Economics. vol. I, ed. By Howard Ellis, Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1948: Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1952.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Disparity in Postwar Exchange Rates. In Seymour Harris, ed., Foreign Economic Policy for the United States, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948, p. 397-412.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Exact Distribution of Continuous Variables in Sequential Analysis. Econometrica, vol. 16, no. 2, April 1948, p. 191-198.
SAMUELSON, P. A. International Trade and Equalisation of Factor Prices. Economic Journal, vol. LVIII, no. 230, June 1948, p. 163-184.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Consumption Theory in Terms of Revealed Preference. Economica, vol. XV, November 1948, p. 243-253.
SAMUELSON, P. A. International Factor-Price Equalisation Once Again. Economic Journal, vol. LIX, no. 234, June 1949, p. 181-197.
Book Review of Hla Myint, Theories of Welfare Economics. In Economica, vol. XVI, November 1949, p. 371-374.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Market Mechanisms and Maximization, Part I: The Theory of Cooperative Advantage; Part II: The Cheapest-Adequate-Diet Problem; and Part III: Dynamics and Linear Programming; published by the RAND Corporation, Parts I and II, March 28 1949, and Part III, June 29 1949.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Le Chatelier Principle in Linear Programming. Published by the RAND Corporation, August 4 1949.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Evaluation of Real National Income. Oxford Economic Paper (New Series), vol. II, no. 1, Oxford, England: University Press, January 1950, p. 1-29.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Iterative Computation of Complex Roots. Journal of Mathematics and Physics, vol. XXVII, no. 4, January 1950, p. 259-267.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Problem of Integrability in Utility Theory. Economica, vol. XVII, no. 68, November 1950, p. 355-385.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Probability and the Attempts to Measure Utility. (English and Japanese), The Economic Review (Keizai Kenkyu), vol. 1, Tokyo: Hitotsubashi University, July 1950, p. 167-173.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Principles and Rules in Modern Fiscal Policy: A Neo-Classical Reformulation. In Money, Trade and Economic Growth: Essays in Honour of John Henry Williams, New York: Macmillan, 1951, p. 157-176.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Abstract of a Theorem Concerning Substitutability in Open Leontief Models, Chapter VII in Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, Activity Analysis of Production and Allocation, ed. by T. C. Koopmans, New York: Wiley, 1951.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Theory and Wages. In David Mc Cord Wright, ed., The Impact of the Union: Eight Economic Theorists Evaluate the Labour Union Movement, New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951, p. 312-342.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Schumpeter as a Teacher and Economic Theorist. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXXIII, no. 2, May 1951, p. 98-103.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Comment. In A Survey in Contemporary Economics, vol. II, ed. by B. F. Haley, Homewood, III.: Richard D. Irwin, 1952.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Comment on Factor Price Equalisation. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. XIX (2), no. 49, February 1952, p. 121-122.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Theory and Mathematics: An Appraisal. The American Economic Review, vol. XLII, no. 2, May 1952, p. 56-66.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Spatial Price Equilibrium and Linear Programming. The American Economic Review, vol. CLII, no. 3, June 1952, p. 283-303.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Transfer Problem and Transport Costs: The Terms of Trade When Impediments Are Absent. Economic Journal, vol. LXII, no. 246, June 1952, p. 278-304.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Probability, Utility, and the Independence Axiom. Econometrica, vol. 20, no. 4, October 1952, p. 670-678.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Rapidly Converging Solutions to Integral Equations. Journal of Mathematics and Physics, vol. XXXI, no. 4, January 1953, p. 276-286.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Consumption Theorems in Terms of Overcompensation rather than Indifference Comparisons. Economica, New Series, vol. XX, no. 77, February 1953, p. 1-9.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Prices of Factors and Goods in General Equilibrium. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. XXI (1), no. 54, 1953-1954, p. 1-20.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Full Employment versus Progress and Other Economic Goals. Chapter XII of Max Millikan, ed., Income Stabilization for a Developing Economy, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953.
SAMUELSON, P. A., SOLOW, R. M. Balanced Growth under Constant Returns to Scale. Econometrica, vol. XXI, no. 3, July 1953, p. 412-424.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Transfer Problem and Transport Costs, II: Analysis of Effects of Trade Impediments. Economic Journal, vol. LXIV, no. 254, June 1954, p. 264-289.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXXVI, no. 4, November 1964, p. 387-389.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Some Psychological Aspects of Mathematics and Economics. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXXVI, no. 4, November 1954, p. 380-382.
Comment on Professor Samuelson on Operationalism. In Economic Theory, by Donald F. Gordon, in The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXIX, May 1955, p. 310-314.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Linear Programming and Economic Theory. Proceedings of the Second Symposium in Linear Programming, Washington, D. C., National Bureau of Standards and U. S. Air Force, January 27-29 1955, vol. 1, p. 251-272.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The New Look in Tax and Fiscal Policy. Joint Committee on the Economic Report, 84th Congress, 1st Session, Federal Tax Policy for Economic Growth and Stability, November 9 1955, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1956, p. 229-234.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Diagrammatic Exposition of a Theory of Public Expenditure. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXXVII, no. 4, November 1955, p. 350-356.
SAMUELSON, P. A.Social Indifference Curves. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXX, no. 1, February 1956, p. 1-22.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Forecasting and National Policy. In The Employment Act Past and Future: A Tenth Anniversary Symposium, edited by Gerhard Colm, Washington: National Planning Association, Special Report no. 41, February 1956, p. 130-134.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Recent American Monetary Controversy. Three Banks Review, March 1956, p. 1-21.
SAMUELSON, P. A., SOLOW, R. M. A Complete Capital Model Involving Heterogeneous Capital Goods. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXX, November 1956, p. 537-562.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Economics of Eisenhower: A Symposium. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XXXVIII, no. 4, November 1956, p. 371-373.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Wages and Interest: A Modern Dissection of Marxian Economic Models. The American Economic Review, vol. XLVII, no. 6, December 1957, p. 884-912.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Intertemporal Price Equilibrium: A Prologue to the Theory of Speculation. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, Band 79, Heft 2, Hamburg: Hoffmann & Campe Verlag, December 1957, p. 181-219.
Book Review of J. de V. Graaff, Theoretical Welfare Economics. In The Economic Journal, vol. 68, no. 271, September 1958, p. 539-541.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Aspects of Public Expenditure Theories. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XL, no. 4, November 1958, p. 335-338.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Frank Knight’s Theorem in Linear Programming. Zeitschrift Für Nationalökonomie, Band XVIII, Heft 3, 1958, p. 310-317.
SAMUELSON, P. A. An Exact Consumption-Loan Model of Interest with or without the Social Contrivance of Money. The Journal of Political Economy, vol. LXVI, no. 6, December 1958, p. 467-482.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Book review of Torsten Gardlund, The Life of Knut Wicksell in The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XLI, no. 1, February 1959, p. 81-83.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Modern Treatment of the Ricardian Economy: I. The Pricing of Goods and of Labor and Land Services. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXXIII, no. 1, February 1959, p. 1-35.
SAMUELSON, P. A. What Economist Know. Chapter 7 in Daniel Lerner, ed., The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, New York: Meridian Books, 1959, p. 183-213.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A Modern Treatment of the Ricardian Economy: II. Capital and Interest Aspects of the Pricing Process. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXXIII, no. 2, May 1959, p. 217-231.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Alvin Hansen and the Interactions between the Multiplier Analysis and the Principle of Acceleration. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XLI, no. 2, Part I, May 1959, p. 183-184.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Reply (Abba P. Lerner, „Consumption-Loan Interest and Money“). The Journal of Political Economy, vol. LXVII, no. 5, October 1959, p. 518-522.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The St. Petersburg Paradox as a Divergent Double Limit. International Economic Review, vol. 1, no. 1, January 1960, p. 31-37.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Infinity, Unanimity, and Singularity: A Reply. The Journal of Political Economy, vol. LXVIII, no. 1, February 1960, p. 76-83.
SAMUELSON, P. A., SOLOW, R. M. Analytical Aspects of Anti-Inflation Policy. The American Economic Review, vol. L, no. 2, May 1960, p. 177-194.
SAMUELSON, P. A. American Economics. In Ralph E. Freeman, ed., Postwar Economic Trends in the U. S., New York: Harpers, 1960, p. 31-50.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Harold Hotelling as Mathematical Economist. American Statistician, vol. XIV, no. 3, June 1960, p. 21-25.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Structure of a Minimum Equilibrium System. In Ralph W. Pfouts, ed., Essays in Economics and Econometrics: A Volume in Honor of Harold Hotelling, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960, p. 1-33.
SAMUELSON, P. A. An Extension of the LeChatelier Principle. Econometrica, vol. 28, no. 2, April 1960, p. 368-379.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Efficient Paths of Capital Accumulation in Terms of the Calculus of Variations. In Kenneth J. Arrow, Samuel Karlin, and Patrick Suppes, eds., Mathematical Methods in the Social Sciences, 1959, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960, p. 77-88.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Reflections on Monetary Policy. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XLII, no. 3, Part 1, August 1960, p. 263-269.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Wages and Interest – A Modern Dissection of Marxian Economic Models: Reply. The American Economic Review, vol. L, no. 4, September 1960, p. 719-721.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Prospects and Policies for the 1961 American Economy. A Report to President-Elect Kennedy, Thursday January 6 1961. Reprinted as Chapter 3, Economic Frontiers, in M. B. Schnapper, ed., New Frontiers of the Kennedy Administration, Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1961.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Evaluation of ‚Social Income‘: Capital Formation and Wealth. Chapter 3 in F. A. Lutz and D. C. Hague, eds., The Theory of Capital, London: Macmillan, 1961, p. 32-57.
SAMUELSON, P. A. A New Theorem on Nonsubstitution. In Money, Growth, and Methodology, published in honor of Johan Akerman, Vol. 20, Lund Social Science Studies, Lund, Sweden: CWK Gleerup, March 1961, p. 407-423.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Problems of the American Economy: An Economist’s View, Stamp Memorial Lecture, delivered before the University of London on November 9 1961, London: The Athlone Press, 1962, p. 1-30.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economists and the History of Ideas, (Presidential Address). The American Economic Review, vol. LII, no. 1, March 1962, p. 1-18.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Policy for 1962. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XLIV, no. 1, February 1962, p. 3-6.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Memorandum for The Royal Commission on Banking and Finance, Ottawa, Canada, October 19 1962.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Parable and Realism in Capital Theory: The Surrogate Production Function. The Review of Economic Studies, vol. XXIX, no. 3, June 1962, p. 193-206.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Gains from International Trade Once Again. The Economic Journal, vol. LXXII, December 1962, p. 820-829.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Stability and Growth in the American Economy, Wicksell Lectures 1962, Stockholm: Alqvist and Wiksell, December 1962.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Comment on Ernest Nagel’s ‚Assumptions in Economic Theory, Papers and Proceedings of the American Economic Association, December 29 1962, p. 231-236.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Fiscal and Financial Policies for Growth. Proceedings – A Symposium of Economic Growth, sponsored by The American Bankers Association, Monday, February 25 1963, Washington, D. C., p. 78-100.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Risk and Uncertainty: A Fallacy of Large Numbers. Scientia, 6th Series, 57th year, April-May 1963.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Economic Thought and the New Industrialism. In Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and Morton White, eds., Paths of American Thought, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1963, p. 219-237.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Modern Economic Realities and Individualism. The Texas Quarterly, Summer 1963, p. 128-139.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The Economic Role of Private Activity. In A Dialogue on the Proper Economic Role of the State, discussion given at Swarthmore, early 1963; Selected Papers no. 7, University of Chicago Graduate School of Business.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Reflections on Central Banking. The National Banking Review, vol. 1, no. 1, September 1963, p. 15-28.
SAMUELSON, P. A. D. H. Robertson (1890-1963). The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXXVII, no. 4, November 1963, p. 517-536.
SAMUELSON, P. A. The General Theory, and A Brief Survey of Post-Keynesian Developments. In Robert Lekachman, ed., Keynes’ General Theory: Reports of Three Decades, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1964, p. 315-347.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Theoretical Notes on Trade Problem. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. XLVI, no. 2, May 1964, p. 145-154.
SAMUELSON, P. A. Equalization by Trade of the Interest Rate Along with the Real Wage. In Trade, Growth, and the Balance of Payments, essays in honor of Gottfried Haberler, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1965, p. 35-52.